Lori Meadows
The first European universities emerged between the 11th and 15th centuries, evolving from Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools. These early institutions lacked many aspects of modern university life. For example, they did not have separate campuses, and lectures were often held in public spaces such as churches, town halls, or markets. Students at these early universities did not have access to dormitories and had to make their own living arrangements or stay in Church-owned properties. They also had to provide their own food, as there were no communal dining establishments. The curriculum at these universities was heavily influenced by the Catholic Church and was primarily focused on preparing students for careers in theology, law, or medicine. Over time, the rediscovery of ancient Greco-Roman knowledge transformed the university's purpose from practical arts to knowledge for the sake of knowledge.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Separate campuses | Lectures were held in rented spaces or public spaces such as churches, town halls, or markets. |
| Student accommodation | Students had to make their own living arrangements or were housed by Church-owned properties. |
| Communal dining | Students had to provide their own food. |
| Religion | Religious requirements were removed. |
| Curriculum | The curriculum was not focused on research and modern learning. |
| Language of instruction | Lectures were not delivered in vernacular languages. |
| Attendance | Professors did not register attendance. |
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What You'll Learn
Separate campuses
The University of Bologna, founded in 1088, is considered the first university in Europe in the sense of being a high degree-awarding institute. It became a widely respected school of canon and civil law. However, the students and faculty of the first European universities did not have separate campuses as we know them today.
The University of Bologna, like other early universities, evolved from Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools. These early universities were corporations of students and masters, and they eventually received their charters from popes, emperors, and kings. The first universities did not have permanent buildings or much corporate property. They often rented spaces for lectures or held them in public spaces such as churches, town halls, or markets.
Over time, through the patronage of the Church and wealthy private individuals, universities acquired what we would recognize today as campuses. The University of Paris, founded between 1150 and 1170, is another example of a university that did not have a separate campus initially. Today, the University of Paris is scattered throughout the city, having been divided into 13 autonomous institutions in 1970, each with its own campus and reputation.
The University of Oxford, established by the end of the 12th century, and the University of Paris were composed of colleges, which were endowed residence halls for scholars. However, dorms were not initially run by universities, and students had to make their own living arrangements or stay in Church-owned properties. Only later were dedicated dorms established for students.
The University of Cambridge, founded in 1209 by scholars leaving Oxford due to political conflicts, is another example of a university that did not have a separate campus at first. The history of the University of Cambridge began when a group of dissatisfied students moved to Cambridge, and 20 years later, Oxford benefited from a similar migration of students.
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Purpose-built accommodation
The first European universities, emerging in the 11th and 12th centuries, did not have purpose-built accommodation. The University of Bologna, the first true university in the West, was founded in the 11th century, and the University of Paris was founded in the 12th century. These early universities did not have permanent buildings or campuses. Lectures were often held in rented spaces or public areas such as churches, town halls, or markets.
The University of Paris, or 'la Sorbonne', as it was known, was one of the first established universities in Europe. It was composed of colleges, which were endowed residence halls for scholars. However, these were not the typical dedicated dorms we associate with universities today. Students at the University of Paris were often sorted by geographic origin, with students from modern-day France living apart from those from Germany or England.
The University of Oxford, established by the end of the 12th century, was modelled after the University of Paris. It, too, lacked a separate campus and was composed of colleges or endowed residence halls for scholars. The University of Cambridge was founded in 1209 by scholars migrating from Oxford due to political conflicts.
The University of Bologna, the oldest university in continuous operation, has never been out of operation since its founding in 1088. It, like the other early universities, did not have purpose-built student accommodation. Students at Bologna ran everything, which often put teachers at a disadvantage.
Over time, through the patronage of the Church and wealthy individuals, universities began to develop what we now recognize as campuses. Dedicated dorms were established, but these were not always run by the universities themselves. Many students had to make their own living arrangements or reside in Church-owned properties.
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Religious orthodoxy
The first European universities were established in present-day Italy, including the Kingdoms of Sicily and Naples, and the Kingdoms of England, France, Spain, Portugal, and Scotland between the 11th and 15th centuries. The University of Bologna in Bologna, Italy, is considered the world's oldest university in continuous operation, with teaching beginning around 1088 and organised into a university in the 12th century. The University of Paris, founded between 1150 and 1170, was the first in Northern Europe and was formally recognised by Pope Gregory IX in 1231. The University of Oxford was established by the end of the 12th century, and the University of Cambridge was founded in 1209.
The first Western European institutions considered to be universities emerged from Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools. Pope Gregory VII played a critical role in promoting and regulating the concept of the modern university, as his 1079 Papal decree ordered the regulated establishment of cathedral schools that became the first European universities. The University of Toulouse, founded by Pope Gregory IX in 1229, was the first to be established by papal decree. These universities were free to govern themselves as long as they did not teach atheism or heresy.
The University of Halle, founded by Lutherans in 1694, was the first modern university in Europe to renounce religious orthodoxy. Instead, it favoured rational and objective intellectual inquiry, and teachers lectured in German rather than Latin. By the 18th and 19th centuries, religion was gradually displaced as European universities became secularised institutions of modern learning and research. The University of Berlin, founded in 1809, is an example of this trend, as it prioritised laboratory experimentation and rigorous examination of traditional doctrines.
During the 18th century, most universities were strongly affiliated with either the Catholic or Protestant church, influencing both employment and matriculation. In the 19th century, religion was removed from the compulsory curriculum, with Napoleon's secular Université de France troubling Roman Catholics by threatening their educational monopoly. In the UK, the Oxford University Act 1854 and the Cambridge University Act 1856 removed religious requirements for students, reflecting a decline in religion as integral to university education.
In summary, while the first European universities were closely tied to religious orthodoxy, influenced by the Catholic Church and papal decrees, the University of Halle's establishment in 1694 marked a shift away from religious doctrine towards secular, rational inquiry. By the 18th and 19th centuries, European universities underwent secularisation, and religious requirements for students were gradually removed, reflecting a broader shift in society and education.
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Secular subjects
The first European universities were established in present-day Italy, including the Kingdoms of Sicily and Naples, and the Kingdoms of England, France, Spain, Portugal, and Scotland between the 11th and 15th centuries. The University of Bologna in Bologna, Italy, is considered the world's oldest university in continuous operation, with teaching beginning around 1088 and organised into a university in the late 12th century. The University of Paris, founded between 1150 and 1170, is also known to be one of the first established universities in Europe.
The first European universities were closely associated with the Catholic Church, evolving from cathedral schools and monastic schools. The curriculum was largely focused on religious subjects, such as theology, and preparing students for careers in the church. However, with the rediscovery of ancient Greco-Roman knowledge, the universities began to shift towards "knowledge for the sake of knowledge", embracing secular subjects such as the arts, law, and medicine.
The University of Naples, founded in 1224, and the University of Toulouse, founded in 1229, were among the first universities established under imperial and papal authority, respectively. These universities enjoyed academic freedom and self-governance, but they were prohibited from teaching atheism or heresy.
During the 18th and 19th centuries, a significant shift occurred in European universities as religion gradually lost its dominant influence. Universities became secularised in their curriculum and administration, embracing rational and objective intellectual inquiry. The University of Halle, founded by Lutherans in 1694, was one of the first to renounce religious orthodoxy.
By the 19th century, the Humboldtian university model, exemplified by the University of Berlin, emphasised laboratory experimentation, rigorous examination of traditional doctrines, and modern standards of academic freedom. This model was later adopted in Europe, the US, and Japan.
In summary, while the first European universities were heavily influenced by the Catholic Church, the curriculum gradually expanded to include secular subjects, and by the 19th century, universities had largely secularised, embracing intellectual inquiry and academic freedom.
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Modern standards of academic freedom
The first European universities emerged between the 11th and 15th centuries, evolving from Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools. These universities were established for the study of the arts and higher disciplines of theology, law, and medicine.
The concept of academic freedom is premised on the belief that freedom of inquiry by faculty members is essential to the mission of the academy and the advancement of knowledge in society. Academic freedom protects the right of teachers and researchers in higher education to:
- Investigate and discuss issues in their academic field
- Teach and publish findings without interference from administrators, boards of trustees, political figures, donors, or other entities
- Speak freely when participating in institutional governance and as citizens
The two most essential protections for academic freedom are tenure and appropriate due process. Tenure protects academic freedom by ensuring that teachers can only be fired for reasons such as gross professional incompetence or behaviour that evokes condemnation from the academic community. Due process ensures that the termination of a tenured appointment must be preceded by a hearing before an elected faculty committee, where the administration must demonstrate adequate cause.
The justification for academic freedom lies in the benefits it brings to society. Academic freedom allows for the free exchange of ideas and the advancement of knowledge, unconstrained by the state, church, or other institutions. The foundation for academic freedom was laid by the medieval European universities, which became legally self-governing corporations with the freedom to organise their faculties, control admissions, and establish graduation standards.
The modern understanding of academic freedom has been shaped by historical developments, such as the secularisation of European universities in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the emergence of institutions like the University of Berlin, which prioritised laboratory experimentation and rigorous examination of traditional doctrines. The rapid growth of technology and the introduction of social media have also led to debates about the need to revise or overhaul the standards of academic freedom to keep up with modernised academia. Additionally, the U.S. Supreme Court has played a role in shaping academic freedom, with cases such as Keyishian v. Board of Regents (1967) connecting academic freedom to the First Amendment as an important protection for all.
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Frequently asked questions
No, the earliest organisations of teachers and students did not have separate campuses. Lectures were often held in public spaces such as churches, town halls or markets.
No, dorms were not run by universities. Students had to make their own living arrangements or were housed by Church-owned properties.
No, the curriculum was largely religious in nature, with theology being the main subject matter.
While universities might have had rules about attire, discipline and behaviour, these were often left to students to follow by their own means.
