Lori Meadows
The medieval university was a corporation established during the Middle Ages for higher education. The first universities in Western Europe were founded between the 11th and 15th centuries in present-day Italy, England, France, Spain, Portugal, and Scotland. These institutions offered a range of subjects, including the arts, theology, law, and medicine. The focus was on religious instruction, with students receiving an education in Latin, arithmetic, writing, and grammar. In contrast, Greco-Roman education was structured and competitive, with boys from affluent families progressing from basic literacy to advanced rhetorical studies. Roman education was tiered, with students progressing based on ability rather than age. The curriculum included subjects like geography, music, philosophy, literature, and mythology. Roman students also had the opportunity to study abroad in Greece to deepen their understanding of Greek philosophy.
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What You'll Learn
Arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, and rhetoric
Medieval university students who studied the Greco-Roman curriculum were studying a range of subjects that formed the basis of a liberal arts education. This curriculum, known as the "trivium" and "quadrivium", included arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, and rhetoric.
Arithmetic was a fundamental part of the curriculum, focusing on the properties of numbers and the art of calculation. Students learned about the different number types, such as natural, rational, and irrational numbers, and studied the basic operations of arithmetic: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. They also explored more advanced topics, such as fractions, ratios, proportions, and the extraction of square and cube roots.
Geometry was another key discipline, involving the study of shapes, sizes, angles, and dimensions. Students learned about the principles of Euclidean geometry, including the definitions, postulates, and theorems that governed two- and three-dimensional shapes. They studied the properties of lines, triangles, circles, and polygons, as well as the concepts of congruence, similarity, and geometric proofs.
Astronomy was a significant part of the Greco-Roman curriculum, combining mathematical and philosophical ideas. Students studied the motions of celestial objects, such as the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars. They learned about the geocentric model of the universe, with Earth at the center, and the theories of prominent astronomers. This included understanding the concepts of spheres, circles, and epicycles used to explain planetary motion.
Music theory was an important aspect of the curriculum, focusing on the mathematical and philosophical principles of music. Students studied the scales, modes, and intervals used in Gregorian chant and other sacred music. They learned about the concept of harmony, the properties of musical intervals, and the rules governing consonance and dissonance.
Grammar was essential for understanding and interpreting texts. Students studied the rules and structure of language, including parts of speech, syntax, and semantics. They learned about different types of words, their functions, and how to construct sentences and paragraphs effectively. Grammar provided the foundation for clear and precise communication, as well as the analysis and interpretation of texts.
Logic, often referred to as dialectic, was crucial for critical thinking and argumentation. Students studied the principles of reasoning, including deductive and inductive logic. They learned about premises, conclusions, valid arguments, and fallacies, equipping them with the tools to analyze and evaluate arguments and identify logical errors.
Rhetoric was the art of effective communication and persuasion. Students studied techniques for crafting persuasive speeches and writing. They learned about invention, arrangement, and style—the three canons of rhetoric—allowing them to influence and defend their positions and ideas through persuasive language.
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Greco-Roman literature
Medieval universities were established in present-day Italy, including the Kingdoms of Sicily and Naples, and the Kingdoms of England, France, Spain, Portugal, and Scotland between the 11th and 15th centuries. The curriculum was predominantly based on ancient Greek and Roman ideas of education. The liberal arts were at the core of the curriculum, divided into the Trivium and the Quadrivium. The Trivium comprised grammar, rhetoric, and logic, while the Quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.
The medieval university system was not a unique development but rather the result of several centuries' worth of developments that resulted in the creation of universities in major European cities. The first universities were formed by recognizing and codifying the various organizations of teachers and students that were cropping up across Western Europe to study canon law or theology. The focus of medieval universities was on religious instruction and the perpetuation of social hierarchies. As such, the trivium and quadrivium served as preparatory work for the study of theology, law, or medicine.
The study of Greco-Roman literature in medieval universities was influenced by the military arts and agriculture, reflecting the Roman concern for survival. Roman literature lacked a literary method of education due to the absence of a national literature. It was not until the appearance of Ennius (239–169 BC), known as the father of Roman poetry, that Roman literature emerged. While the Romans adopted many aspects of Greek education, they viewed music and athletics as trifles. Music was fundamental to Greek education and was tied directly to the Greek paideia, while the Romans considered it a path to moral corruption. Athletics, to the Greeks, promoted a healthy and beautiful body, while the Romans believed it was only a means to maintain good soldiers.
Medieval university students studied comic texts from the Greco-Roman world, with special emphasis on the social meanings of comedy. Readings included stage comedy, satire, novels, fables, and other genres, from authors such as Aristophanes, Plautus, Terence, Horace, Petronius, and Apuleius. Literary works from ancient Greece and Rome illuminated the experience of warfare and its aftermath, depicting not only the battlefield but also the stories of veterans, women at home and in war, and enslaved captives.
The study of music in medieval universities centred on melodic composition, with a focus on learning and producing songs for church worship. While the Romans did not view music as a central part of education, the Greeks considered the ability to play an instrument as a mark of a civilized, educated man. Mousike, or 'the art of the Muses', combined modern-day music, dance, lyrics, and poetry, comparable to today's liberal arts.
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Roman education system
The Roman education system was closely tied to the social institution of patria potestas, where the father acted as the head of the household and had the legal right to control and educate his children. The Romans believed that the home and family were the foundation of ancient Roman education, from which children derived their "moral education". Both boys and girls were educated, although not necessarily together.
The Roman education system was influenced by Greek thought and lifestyle after the capture of Tarentum and the annexation of Sicily in the 3rd century BC. The Romans adopted many aspects of Greek education, but they viewed music and athletics as trifles. Music was fundamental to the Greek educational system, tied directly to the Greek paideia, but the Romans considered it a path to moral corruption. Athletics, to the Greeks, was a means to a healthy and beautiful body, but the Romans believed it was only a way to maintain good soldiers. The Romans were more practically-minded in their approach to education, focusing on areas of study that served a purpose beyond themselves.
Formal schools were established, servicing paying students, and there was very little in the way of free public education. Students progressed through schools based on their ability rather than age, with a great emphasis placed on their innate "gift" for learning and their ability to afford high-level education. A Roman student would advance through the tiers of schools, much like a modern student might go from primary school to secondary school and then to college.
The medieval university curriculum was heavily influenced by ancient Greek and Roman ideas of education. Students began their studies with the Seven Liberal Arts, divided into the Trivium (Grammar, Rhetoric, and Logic) and the Quadrivium (Arithmetic, Astronomy, Geometry, and Music). The Trivium was taught first, followed by the Quadrivium, which would lead to a Master of Arts degree. Higher faculties included Theology, Medicine, and Law.
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Rhetoric and law
The curriculum at medieval universities was heavily influenced by classical education, particularly the study of the liberal arts. These were divided into the trivium—grammar, rhetoric, and logic—and the quadrivium—arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. Rhetoric was a key component of classical education, with its roots in ancient Greece and Rome. The study of rhetoric in medieval universities can be traced back to the educational practices of ancient Greek and Roman philosophers, who emphasised dialectical reasoning and the pursuit of truth.
In ancient Rome, education was primarily divided into three stages: elementary, secondary, and rhetorical. The elementary stage focused on basic literacy, numeracy, and moral education, while the secondary level centred on Latin literature and grammar. The study of rhetoric, or the rhetor level, was the final stage in Roman education, and very few boys went on to study it. Rhetoric studies were not taught by exclusive teachers but were learned through a student's careful observation of their elders. The practice of rhetoric was created by the Greeks and later became an institution in Roman society, taking a while to gain acceptance.
The role of the rhetor, or student of rhetoric, was important in Roman society due to the constant political strife. Students of rhetoric focused on public speaking and also learned other subjects such as geography, music, philosophy, literature, mythology, and geometry. This diverse education helped prepare them for future debates and a career in law or politics. The judicial oratory field of study, for example, prepared orators to enter criminal law and gain a public following.
In medieval universities, rhetoric was part of the trivium, which were the three subjects taught first. The study of rhetoric in these universities was influenced by classical education and the works of ancient Greek and Roman philosophers. Cicero's works, for example, were used for the study of rhetoric. The curriculum at these universities aimed to cultivate well-rounded individuals equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary to engage in public life, think critically, and pursue intellectual virtues.
Law was another important aspect of classical education, with Roman schools of law and rhetoric established. Canon law, in particular, was studied in medieval universities, with a monk named Gratian writing the standard text of canon law, the Decretum, around 1140. Law was one of the higher faculties that students could pursue further studies in after obtaining a Master of Arts degree. Students studying law in Bologna, for example, could be in their thirties.
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Philosophy
Medieval university students studying Greco-Roman philosophy would have encountered a rich tapestry of ideas and traditions, with influences from ancient Greek, Hellenistic, Roman, early Islamic, and Jewish philosophical schools of thought. The philosophical landscape of the time was shaped by the works of influential figures such as Plato, Aristotle, Zeno of Citium, Epicurus, and more.
One of the key philosophical traditions that medieval students would have engaged with is Stoicism. Stoicism emerged in the Hellenistic world and was founded by Zeno of Citium, who developed his philosophy after studying with Greek philosophers in Athens. Stoicism emphasizes living in accordance with nature, embracing physics, logic, and ethics. Stoics believed in a rational and causally determined universe, where matter is passive and "logos" (god) is active, running through all matter as its organizing principle. Stoicism was particularly influential during the Hellenistic period, and its ideas were further developed and spread during the Roman era.
Another important philosophical school that medieval students would have studied is Epicureanism, founded by Epicurus. Epicurus studied with Platonic and Pyrrhonist teachers before developing his own philosophy. Epicureanism holds that personal fulfilment is attained through enjoying life's simple pleasures, emphasizing the joy of friendship. While it faced criticism and fell out of favor with some Roman statesmen and emperors, it nonetheless left a lasting impact on philosophical thought.
The works of Aristotle, a student of Plato, also played a significant role in medieval philosophical studies. Aristotle's writings contributed heavily to Islamic, Jewish, and medieval Christian philosophy. His ideas, focused on observed behaviors and a moral assumption that life is valuable, influenced thinkers across various traditions. Medieval university students would have studied his treatises and treatises about him, such as commentaries by Boethius.
Plato's philosophy, as transmitted through the Platonic Schools of Athens and Alexandria, also served as a foundation for medieval philosophy. While Plato and Aristotle were often seen as opponents, Porphyry, a student of Plotinus, argued for the harmony between their philosophies. Medieval students would have begun their studies with Aristotle's works, focusing on logic, before moving on to Plato's dialogues.
In addition to these philosophical traditions, medieval students would have engaged with the philosophical writings of prominent Roman figures, such as Seneca the Younger, Cicero, and Marcus Aurelius. Roman philosophy tended to focus on political and governmental dogmas, given that many Roman philosophers were also statesmen. This practical emphasis established a framework for modern governmental practices and continued to influence Western thought for centuries.
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Frequently asked questions
University education in the Middle Ages was largely centred around religious studies, reading and writing Latin, arithmetic, and studying scripture. Students were also expected to converse in Latin, as it was the language of scholarly discourse.
The curriculum for Greco-Roman studies in medieval universities included rhetoric, grammar, Latin, logic, and Bible studies. Students also studied the liberal arts: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, and rhetoric.
The Roman education system was tiered, with students progressing through different schools. At age 9-12, boys from wealthy families would study writing, speaking, and poetry analysis with a grammaticus. At age 14-15, the wealthiest and most promising students would move on to study rhetoric with a rhetor, focusing on public speaking and political discourse.
